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Com 314: Mass Communication Theory
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Updated: 22 November, 2002
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SEXUALITY IN MEDIA |
Updated: 11/22/02
Note: In the interest of getting these notes up in time for you to have them before the DL Final, the formatting is not quite as I would like it to be. In transferring the copy from Word to Front page the appearance isn't great. These were the notes I prepared for a seminar I gave in Austin, Texas. Further resources are available upon request. Full citations for Bryant and Zillman available on the syllabus page or book list web page. JM
(Notes come primarily from Bryant and Zillman, ch. 9, p 247)
Some statistics:
By age 20, 70% of the girls and 80 % of the boys in the U.S. have been exposed to pornographic materials.
By the age of 12 one in five boys and one in ten girls have had their first exposure to hard core pornography.
One in Seven of these has contracted a sexually transmitted
disease.
Currently 25% of the pregnancies in the U.S. occur to mothers
under 20 years of age (Greenberg,
et all, 1993)
91% of Junior High Boys and 82% of Junior High Girls have been exposed to pornography (Holgate, 2001)
Children are most like to first be exposed to pornography via the internet.
The top four Internet news sites average 2.5 millions unique users per day; the top five sex sites receive more than 4 million with more than 60 million individuals using porn sites each day (Web, 2001)
The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children found that one in five children age 10-7 who regularly use the Internet have received a sexual solicitation while online. One in four were unwillingly exposed to images of naked people or people having sex.
Studies have shown that the major
source of information about sex for young people comes from the media, primarily
television, movies, music videos and song lyrics and
magazines.
We all know frequent sex is in TV, Movies, etc.
What types of sex occur on television?:
Premarital encounters outnumbered references to sex between spouses ..
32: 1 in daytime soaps
32: 1 in R-rated movies with teens
More sexual references occurred overall in daytime
Prime time had most
references to intercourse and
sexual deviance
Nudity was found in one study in all R-Rated films popular with teens
female nudity (especially breasts) outnumbered male
nudity by 4:1 margin
Significantly more nudity and explicit sex in films than on TV
The amount of sex on television significantly
increased from the 70s to the 80s.
Sexual activity included
physical suggestive
erotic touching
intercourse
A study by Planned Parenthood in 1987 found much sexual innuendo, few references to
sex education, sexually transmitted diseases, or birth control.
They
also found an average of more than one explicit verbal reference to sexual
intercourse per hour-- three times the rate of implied intercourse.
n a study comparing the level of
sexual content in 1979 to that of 1989.
Appearance of sex in prime time had not declined--even though there was a
fear of AIDS
1979 -- sexual behavior or language occurred an average of 12.8 times per
hour
1989 -- sexual incident occurred 15.8 times per hour.
Explicit intercourse, unseen in 1979, was observed four times in
1989.
Characters in 1989 spoke explicitly
about having sex, on average, about once an
hour.
Most common form of sex on
television was innuendo (36% of all incidents)
Least common were criminal acts, which declined from 1979.
Prime time
sex occurred overwhelmingly outside of marriage
1979 -- 3 of 4 non criminal
sex acts with unmarried partners
1989 -- 8 of 10 "
A study in 1993: found similar
results:
Television still avoids discussion of sexual responsibility. Such references were actually
fewer in the 93 study than in 1989.
Prime time sex is still most likely to be found in situation
comedies.
Most common form of sexual content is innuendo, but explicit sex was
found in this sample as well as the 1989 sample.
Nationwide, viewers are unhappy
with the level of sex on TV
70% of respondents to a nationwide poll
believed there was excessive sex and offensive language on television.
Source: Joan Gorham: Sex in Primetime Television (SCA Paper, 1994)
As concerning as this content may be, even more concerning is
sexually explicit materials of more extreme nature: Pornography and obscenity.
Content involves all types of
sexual behavior, but there is
•
little reference to general tenderness, cuddling, etc.
•
"Women are seen eagerly desiring and participating in sex, often with
hysterical euphoria."
•
frequently combined with violence or “unusual” behaviors
Meese Commission defined five classes
of pornography: (1986 Attorney General’s Report on
Pornography)
Sexually violent materials
Nonviolent materials depicting degradation, domination, subordination or
humiliation
Nonviolent and non degrading materials (no
coercion)
Nudity
Child Pornography
Pornography is a value-laden term, so researchers
usually use the words "Sexually Explicit"
This is a $5 BILLION
market. Much of it is
controlled by the mob as was established by
How does such material effect its
viewers?
•
Arousal:
sexual material sexually arouses its viewers, particularly males (an old
theory: The Catharthis theory said
that if people watched enough, it would "drain those urges"
away......BUNK..
(..Ask students to recall their own
experiences watching a sexy scene....)
This arousal is much
stronger for sex offenders than for normal
men
UNLESS the victim is portrayed as being aroused by the
assault.
Different
stimuli could trigger this
arousal (Boot on a nude figure, could make boots arousing in the
future....)
Sometimes absence of explicit content is arousing (i.e. in some old romantic
movies...imagination is the key
Primary sex organ is
the BRAIN.
•
Desentization: reduction of impact of material;
stronger content is needed to achieve the same amount of arousal. It may also be a deadening of emotional
identification with another person or another person’s pain.
Viewers of this material may experience desensitization to
expressions of sexuality which may be deemed inappropriate
Teenager who watches may come to adopt the
attitudes or values of TV characters, particularly if those characters
are seen to be like her/him or respected
by her/him
This
was what Dan Quayle was concerned about with Murphy Brown.
Trivialization
of sexual
issues
·
doesn’t take them
seriously
·
Cartoons such as "Chester the Molester" or article entitled "Good Sex With
Retarded Girls.." [Some things aren't funny.]
women are playthings
to be abused, used
Young boys first exposure to sexual images can imprint their ideas of sexuality for the rest of their lives.
mystique removed : no mystery, nothing special
what are they to think
about women when they see a picture
·
women in sexual poses
dressed up like little girls
·
black women portrayed as
slaves enjoying their abuse (USE DISCRETION WITH FOLLOWING MATERIAL)
of a jackhammer in a woman's vagina as the
opening photo in a series called "How to Cure Frigidity."
women
hanging from trees
with
excrement all over them
women or men in sex acts with animals
RESEARCH
EVIDENCE:
Respondents seeing explicit
films reported (relative to a control group) less
satisfaction with the affection, physical appearance, sexual curiosity, and
sexual performance of their real-life partners.
Also report higher expectations that people in real life perform
"unusual sexual activities”
more than they really do.
[There is some indication that printed sexual material may
actually make The reader relate more to their own partner, but photographic
material makes the observer less satisfied with their own partner. (This makes sense logically)
]
Teaches
new behaviors: become
"cookbook"
Sex
therapists sometimes recommend sex manuals to help couples, but these are not
the same as pornography (or at least the Christian ones are not)
Some behaviors learned are not positive at all:
Some of the stuff is even more raw than that, including "snuff films" in
which people are actually murdered:
tortured
with power tools inserted into body openings
sexual
penetration into eye sockets after the victim is dead
Effects of such material can be both
disinhibiting and inhibitory
Some people may be repelled
Others may be at first curious, then fascinated and later find their own
inhibitions against such activity have weakened.
Two separate studies demonstrated that "a surprisingly large number of
college men reported they might rape if they were sure they would not get
caught.
Sex Crimes: What is the relationship here?
Circumstantial evidence is very significant.
FBI reports indicate that in the overwhelming majority of cases, when a
sex crime occurs, pornography is either at the scene of the crime or in the
possession of the assailant.
Jeffrey Dahmer had boxes and boxes of sexually explicit materials in his
possession. He is not
alone.
In the Attorney General's Commission's final report, testimony after
testimony reported that such materials were used during the rapes, or other
abuses which took place.
Ted Bundy, who murdered 28 women and girls admitted that addiction to
violent pornography led to the sexually violent urges that motivated his
crimes.
Most western nations have experiences a significant increase in sex
crimes in the last 20 years since sexually explicit materials have been
allowed.
Comparably, between 1974 and 1976 when restrictions were placed on such
materials in Hawaii, the rates of violent sex crimes were reduced!
PREVAILING
TONE:
In mass
com theory we discuss Accommodation Theory and the importance of the context in which a mediated message is
presented. The variables which make
up that context are called the prevailing tone.
Variables include:
•
Degree of playfulness or
seriousness of the material
documentary or tastefully done
TV movie on incest may be okay
a comedy (which may be less explicit) may be considered too much
Artistic
worth and intent
Picasso vs. Hustler
Shakespear, portions of the BIBLE or a serious book like the JOY OF
SEX
How does that change with time:
Rhett forcing Scarlet in Gone with the WInd was considered Romantic in
1939.....Now? (my grandfather
thought that was terrible, and he never liked the movie because of that)
Relation
of Sex to the overall plot and intent of the piece
was the sex thrown in
necessary for the story?
gratuitousness of the sex scene
Innuendo may seem harmless, but makes up majority of sex on TV
THREE's COMPANY was one of the sexiest shows on
TV
Site:
where you watch and with whom
Cultural
context: different things are taboo in different
parts of the world in many cultures breasts are not considered particularly erotic or
inappropriate for public display
In 19th century, a woman's calves and knees were considered highly erotic
and were perhaps as arousing at that time as a topless dancer is today.(can-can
dancers!)
Expectations:
More offensive if we don't expect it than if we do.
MOST SERIOUS COMBINATION: SEX AND VIOLENCE
Content analysis have shown significant increases in violent (bondage and
domination)
Slasher films have become common place, and violence usually takes place
in a sexual situation
Materials showing tender, loving
sex, usually don't lead to aggressive behavior, but those which combine sex with
violence DO.
Convicted rapists aroused by both consensual and violent sex
Normal males aroused only by consensual sex UNLESS the woman seemed to enjoy the
rape....!!!!
Women were NOT aroused by depictions of violent sex
Another study showed that
"force-oriented males" were more aroused by rape scenes (in which the
woman finally enjoyed the assault) where the non-force-oriented males were more
aroused by the consensual sex scenario.
There are numerous other studies....
Conclusions:
•
critical
aspect: whether or not the woman appears to enjoy the encounter
•
the "no
means yes" myth is not only distasteful but DANGEROUS!
SLASHER FILMS: The most dangerous
type of content in my opinion.
Read from Bryant and Zillman p. 261
What have been the government's positions on this
issue?
1967: National commission on
Obscenity and Pornography established by Johnson Adm.
80 studies
3 years later reported that controls should remain for minors, but that
no harmful effects were found for adults, and some pro-social effects actually
were possible.
HOWEVER, at that time, the hard core violent pornography currently
available was NOT available here.
PLAYBOY rarely showed frontal nudity below the waste and never the OB/GYN
shots that are there now.
1985, MEESE COMMISSION
was established and reported one year later.
Strong conclusions about the dangerous effects of sex and violence
Victor Cline of University of Utah:
found four effects of sexually explicit materials:
Addiction:
Escalation: more and stronger material needed to achieve "effect"
Desensitization: loss of compassion for those
in pain or suffering
Acting Out: viewing
material no longer enough.
Additional Resources: This is a limited list. Their are numerous resources. See my reading list or see me for additional resources.
Bryant, Jennings and Dolf Zilman. "Responding to the Screen: Reception and Reaction Process." Hillsdale, N.J.: LEA, 1991.
Bryant, Jennings and Dolf Zilman. Media Effects, Advances in Theory and Research." Hillsdale, N.J.: LEA, 1994.
Cline, Dr. Victor. "Pornography's Effects on Adults and Children." You Turn and Women For Decency. http://www.cmpa.com/tvent/marketviolenceexsum.htm
The National Coalition for the Protection of Children and Families. http://www.nationalcoalition.org/
Parents Television Council offers an excellent account of content currently on television as well as some good resources for parents and others. http://www.parentstv.org/ Their most recent content analysis reports sex, violence and vulgar language up significantly in the "family hour."
U.S. Department of Justice. Attorney General's Commission on Pornography Final Report, July, 1996. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C., 1996
Copyright, 2002
Dr. Janet McMullen