Updated: 11/11/01

Before you can understand media effects, you must have a basic understanding of media methods

Survey research: has its problems with

• questionnaire structure
• bias
• validity--measure what you're trying to measure?
• sample structure
• self-report
• Snap-shot method: only measures the moment

Content analysis:

• subjectivity
• must have careful training
• testing coder-inter-reliability

Laboratory/Experimental

• artificiality
• specific to that time and place

Field Studies:

• artificial (but better)
• expensive
• intrusive (but better)
• qualitative in nature

• VERY expensive
• rare
• Study in Canada: before and after TV
• excellent and rare opportunity

Ethnomethodology:

• in-depth interview
• participant observation
• hard to replicate; case study method; researcher expertise is key.

Discuss limitations of mass com research:

• CAN we ever really know what's going on?
• Ethical constraints....
• Does that limit our policy making decisions?
• If you can't prove a specific harm.....How can you limit freedom?

We're going to look at the development of mass com theory very quickly, then we'll focus on some specific areas of media influence.

KEY THEORIES IN MASS COMMUNICATIONS:

PROPAGANDA: In the early part of this century, as mass com in the form of newspapers, movies and radio developed, the role of propaganda was noted:

• Spanish American War: the Yellow Press supported the war, and whipped up a fervor for it.
• World War I -- mass use of it to develop support for war effort
• Post WWI -- Hitler used it very effectively

BULLET THEORY: By the 1920's, messages were seen as Bullets pointed at an essentially passive audience.

Sometimes called Hypodermic Needle Theory

• People couldn't help themselves.
• War of the Worlds reaction seemed to support this...
• S-R THEORY

THEORIES OF SELECTIVE INFLUENCE or INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

Since not everybody headed for the hills, something had to cause them not to do so? Why did some go and some not go? Individual differences in the audiences were the reasons... These differences were called INTERVENING VARIABLES. These differences led people to seek out and react to media messages in different ways.

TWO STEP FLOW: This theory, developed by Paul Lazarsfeld, stated that it was not the message, but the influence of the OPINION LEADER which determined how an individual reacted to a message.

S--OL--R

Who the opinion leaders are is determined by an individuals membership in social organizations and their subsequent social relationships.

The bonds between members of these groups are stronger and more influential than media messages. (Voting decisions; reaction to movie...etc)

CONGRUENCE THEORIES: (Cognitive Dissonance)

Because of our individual differences, our group membership or our personal relationships, we approach mediated messages in different ways. We want to avoid COGNITIVE inconsistencies and subsequent COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (physiological pain as a result: Examples:_________________)

To achieve this we use a third type of selective influence theory: 

REINFORCEMENT THEORY which holds that we 

• selectively expose: we choose things that agree with our views
• selectively attend: watch and pay attention to those things that agree with our views
• selectively perceive: see what we want to see.
• selectively remember: remember what we want to remember.
• selectively act: put what we attend, perceive, and remember into action

Why a person who likes a certain candidate will generally think their candidate did better than the opposition in televised debate.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES: (Modeling or observational learning theories)

We learn by observing others: Media models are particularly strong influences on viewers. Leading researcher in this area: Albert Bandura.

MODELLING THEORY: 

Socialization: How we learn to get along in the society.

Two types of socialization

• Formal: intentional
• Informal: not necessarily intentional or at least not OVERTLY intentional. (Norman Lear, etc.)

Process involves:

• observation of mediated model
• identification with the model (like me, etc.)
• realizes modeling the mediate behavior will be functional
• RETAINS the behavior in memory (via symbolic codes)
• recognizes a situation in which the behavior will be functional
• uses the behavior in that situation.
• IF the behavior brings about the desired gratification, it is REINFORCED and LINK is formed between the situation, the behavior, and the gratification.
• Probability is increased that the behavior will be used again.

There are THREE TYPES OF Modeling EFFECTS:

Observational Learning: Viewers learn by watching TV. We know how to do lots of things that we don't do...Heimlich maneuver

Inhibititory Effects: We see the consequences of behaviors on television and decide we don't want to do them...Drink and Drive, use drugs, date an abusing individual, etc.

Disinhibitory Effects: We see others do something on TV that we might be afraid to do, or hesitate to do. They do it successfully, without harm, and so we think can do it too. (Bungee Jump, join an exercise program.)

SOCIAL EXPECTATION THEORIES:

Where Social Learning theory deals with media effects on INDIVIDUALS, in the socialization process, Social Expectation theory is concerned SOCIETY....How do media effect the culture?

• How do media teach people what the society expects of them?
• What is NORMAL and what is not?
• What is acceptable and what is not?

This all began with

Theory of Cultural Norms: (DeFleur, 1970)

• Media imply certain images as Normal for society. (stereotypes)
• Those images are seen over and over again.
• Accepted as NORMAL for society.
• People alter their behavior to match the TV NORM which they believe is REALLY normal.
• Eventually, the REAL norm moves toward the TV NORM!

(We may have seen that happen with respect to foul language, sexual attitudes and behavior)

Involves:

• NORMS: rules accepted and understood by all members of a society
• ROLES: specialized division of labor in a society.
• RANKING: who has the power/authority in a society.
• SANCTIONS: the consequences of aberrant behavior.

Out of the Theory of Cultural Norms came SOCIAL EXPECTATION theory:

• TV presents information about NORMS, ROLEs, RANKINGS and Sanctions.
• Establishes our EXPECTATIONs about the society!
• Those expectations serve as our GUIDES to ACTION. (White swimsuit, example....This is acceptable body image, you should cover up, eat Special K)

This is a very strong theory: a lot of explanatory power with simple steps.

Makes sense on the short and LONG term for whole societies and for individuals.

We call that PARSIMONIOUS (highly efficient)

CULTIVATION THEORY: Similar theory. States that heavy viewers and light

viewers have different perceptions of the world. Related to cultural norms, but different in that it is more of an individual theory.

• Mean World Syndrome:
• Homogenization of heavy viewers.....
• more main stream
• more shared ideas
• Light viewers are more different and have more highly differentiated view points.

USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY:

• People use media to get specific rewards...gratifications.
• Sometimes don't get what they are seeking....Got entertained when wanted to learn something,
• LEARNED something when they just wanted to be entertained.
• One of the gratifications that people seek from media is COMPANIONSHIP, or a feeling of CONNECTEDNESS.

People get attached to characters on television, and these relationships become very important to them. When Gary Shepard on "thirtysomething" was killed in a car crash, viewers grieved with the characters.....

These relationships are called "PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS"

• have many of the characteristics of real interpersonal relationships
• one of the best predictors of television viewing motivation and behavior.

ACCOMODATION THEORY:

Media influences cannot be separated from environmental factors.

• Where
• Who's there
• Context
• etc.

Can't be quantified. Must use qualitative research.

ALL of these theories are some variation on the basic communications model:

Sender-------- Transmitter---------------- Channel---------------Receiver-----Recipient

The message can compromised in the encoding and decoding process by interference or noise. Feedback is the response given back to the sender by the receiver.

In the following sections, we're going to talk about media impact on specific areas of society. At that time we may refer to these theories or introduce others. A basic understanding of this material will give you the perspective you need as we go into those specific areas.

Resources:

• Head, S. and Sterling, Broadcasting In America, Houghton-Mifflin, 7^th ed. New York,: 1996

• Anderson, J. and T. Meyer, Mediated Communication, Sage: 1988.

• Baran, S. and D. Davis. Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment and Future. Wadsworth, 1995.

Copyright, 2001

Dr. Janet McMullen

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